PERLTOOT(1) Perl Programmers Reference Guide PERLTOOT(1)
NAME
perltoot - Tom's object-oriented tutorial for perl
DESCRIPTION
Object-oriented programming is a big seller these days.
Some managers would rather have objects than sliced bread.
Why is that? What's so special about an object? Just
what is an object anyway?
An object is nothing but a way of tucking away complex
behaviours into a neat little easy-to-use bundle. (This
is what professors call abstraction.) Smart people who
have nothing to do but sit around for weeks on end
figuring out really hard problems make these nifty objects
that even regular people can use. (This is what professors
call software reuse.) Users (well, programmers) can play
with this little bundle all they want, but they aren't to
open it up and mess with the insides. Just like an
expensive piece of hardware, the contract says that you
void the warranty if you muck with the cover. So don't do
that.
The heart of objects is the class, a protected little
private namespace full of data and functions. A class is
a set of related routines that addresses some problem
area. You can think of it as a user-defined type. The
Perl package mechanism, also used for more traditional
modules, is used for class modules as well. Objects
"live" in a class, meaning that they belong to some
package.
More often than not, the class provides the user with
little bundles. These bundles are objects. They know
whose class they belong to, and how to behave. Users ask
the class to do something, like "give me an object." Or
they can ask one of these objects to do something. Asking
a class to do something for you is calling a class method.
Asking an object to do something for you is calling an
object method. Asking either a class (usually) or an
object (sometimes) to give you back an object is calling a
constructor, which is just a kind of method.
That's all well and good, but how is an object different
from any other Perl data type? Just what is an object
really; that is, what's its fundamental type? The answer
to the first question is easy. An object is different
from any other data type in Perl in one and only one way:
you may dereference it using not merely string or numeric
subscripts as with simple arrays and hashes, but with
named subroutine calls. In a word, with methods.
The answer to the second question is that it's a
reference, and not just any reference, mind you, but one
whose referent has been bless()ed into a particular class
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(read: package). What kind of reference? Well, the
answer to that one is a bit less concrete. That's because
in Perl the designer of the class can employ any sort of
reference they'd like as the underlying intrinsic data
type. It could be a scalar, an array, or a hash
reference. It could even be a code reference. But
because of its inherent flexibility, an object is usually
a hash reference.
Creating a Class
Before you create a class, you need to decide what to name
it. That's because the class (package) name governs the
name of the file used to house it, just as with regular
modules. Then, that class (package) should provide one or
more ways to generate objects. Finally, it should provide
mechanisms to allow users of its objects to indirectly
manipulate these objects from a distance.
For example, let's make a simple Person class module. It
gets stored in the file Person.pm. If it were called a
Happy::Person class, it would be stored in the file
Happy/Person.pm, and its package would become
Happy::Person instead of just Person. (On a personal
computer not running Unix or Plan 9, but something like
MacOS or VMS, the directory separator may be different,
but the principle is the same.) Do not assume any formal
relationship between modules based on their directory
names. This is merely a grouping convenience, and has no
effect on inheritance, variable accessibility, or anything
else.
For this module we aren't going to use Exporter, because
we're a well-behaved class module that doesn't export
anything at all. In order to manufacture objects, a class
needs to have a constructor method. A constructor gives
you back not just a regular data type, but a brand-new
object in that class. This magic is taken care of by the
bless() function, whose sole purpose is to enable its
referent to be used as an object. Remember: being an
object really means nothing more than that methods may now
be called against it.
While a constructor may be named anything you'd like, most
Perl programmers seem to like to call theirs new().
However, new() is not a reserved word, and a class is
under no obligation to supply such. Some programmers have
also been known to use a function with the same name as
the class as the constructor.
Object Representation
By far the most common mechanism used in Perl to represent
a Pascal record, a C struct, or a C++ class is an
anonymous hash. That's because a hash has an arbitrary
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number of data fields, each conveniently accessed by an
arbitrary name of your own devising.
If you were just doing a simple struct-like emulation, you
would likely go about it something like this:
$rec = {
name => "Jason",
age => 23,
peers => [ "Norbert", "Rhys", "Phineas"],
};
If you felt like it, you could add a bit of visual
distinction by up-casing the hash keys:
$rec = {
NAME => "Jason",
AGE => 23,
PEERS => [ "Norbert", "Rhys", "Phineas"],
};
And so you could get at $rec->{NAME} to find "Jason", or
@{ $rec->{PEERS} } to get at "Norbert", "Rhys", and
"Phineas". (Have you ever noticed how many 23-year-old
programmers seem to be named "Jason" these days? :-)
This same model is often used for classes, although it is
not considered the pinnacle of programming propriety for
folks from outside the class to come waltzing into an
object, brazenly accessing its data members directly.
Generally speaking, an object should be considered an
opaque cookie that you use object methods to access.
Visually, methods look like you're dereffing a reference
using a function name instead of brackets or braces.
Class Interface
Some languages provide a formal syntactic interface to a
class's methods, but Perl does not. It relies on you to
read the documentation of each class. If you try to call
an undefined method on an object, Perl won't complain, but
the program will trigger an exception while it's running.
Likewise, if you call a method expecting a prime number as
its argument with a non-prime one instead, you can't
expect the compiler to catch this. (Well, you can expect
it all you like, but it's not going to happen.)
Let's suppose you have a well-educated user of your Person
class, someone who has read the docs that explain the
prescribed interface. Here's how they might use the
Person class:
use Person;
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$him = Person->new();
$him->name("Jason");
$him->age(23);
$him->peers( "Norbert", "Rhys", "Phineas" );
push @All_Recs, $him; # save object in array for later
printf "%s is %d years old.\n", $him->name, $him->age;
print "His peers are: ", join(", ", $him->peers), "\n";
printf "Last rec's name is %s\n", $All_Recs[-1]->name;
As you can see, the user of the class doesn't know (or at
least, has no business paying attention to the fact) that
the object has one particular implementation or another.
The interface to the class and its objects is exclusively
via methods, and that's all the user of the class should
ever play with.
Constructors and Instance Methods
Still, someone has to know what's in the object. And that
someone is the class. It implements methods that the
programmer uses to access the object. Here's how to
implement the Person class using the standard hash-ref-as-
an-object idiom. We'll make a class method called new()
to act as the constructor, and three object methods called
name(), age(), and peers() to get at per-object data
hidden away in our anonymous hash.
package Person;
use strict;
##################################################
## the object constructor (simplistic version) ##
##################################################
sub new {
my $self = {};
$self->{NAME} = undef;
$self->{AGE} = undef;
$self->{PEERS} = [];
bless($self); # but see below
return $self;
}
##############################################
## methods to access per-object data ##
## ##
## With args, they set the value. Without ##
## any, they only retrieve it/them. ##
##############################################
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sub name {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{NAME} = shift }
return $self->{NAME};
}
sub age {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{AGE} = shift }
return $self->{AGE};
}
sub peers {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { @{ $self->{PEERS} } = @_ }
return @{ $self->{PEERS} };
}
1; # so the require or use succeeds
We've created three methods to access an object's data,
name(), age(), and peers(). These are all substantially
similar. If called with an argument, they set the
appropriate field; otherwise they return the value held by
that field, meaning the value of that hash key.
Planning for the Future: Better Constructors
Even though at this point you may not even know what it
means, someday you're going to worry about inheritance.
(You can safely ignore this for now and worry about it
later if you'd like.) To ensure that this all works out
smoothly, you must use the double-argument form of
bless(). The second argument is the class into which the
referent will be blessed. By not assuming our own class
as the default second argument and instead using the class
passed into us, we make our constructor inheritable.
While we're at it, let's make our constructor a bit more
flexible. Rather than being uniquely a class method,
we'll set it up so that it can be called as either a class
method or an object method. That way you can say:
$me = Person->new();
$him = $me->new();
To do this, all we have to do is check whether what was
passed in was a reference or not. If so, we were invoked
as an object method, and we need to extract the package
(class) using the ref() function. If not, we just use the
string passed in as the package name for blessing our
referent.
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sub new {
my $proto = shift;
my $class = ref($proto) || $proto;
my $self = {};
$self->{NAME} = undef;
$self->{AGE} = undef;
$self->{PEERS} = [];
bless ($self, $class);
return $self;
}
That's about all there is for constructors. These methods
bring objects to life, returning neat little opaque
bundles to the user to be used in subsequent method calls.
Destructors
Every story has a beginning and an end. The beginning of
the object's story is its constructor, explicitly called
when the object comes into existence. But the ending of
its story is the destructor, a method implicitly called
when an object leaves this life. Any per-object clean-up
code is placed in the destructor, which must (in Perl) be
called DESTROY.
If constructors can have arbitrary names, then why not
destructors? Because while a constructor is explicitly
called, a destructor is not. Destruction happens
automatically via Perl's garbage collection (GC) system,
which is a quick but somewhat lazy reference-based GC
system. To know what to call, Perl insists that the
destructor be named DESTROY. Perl's notion of the right
time to call a destructor is not well-defined currently,
which is why your destructors should not rely on when they
are called.
Why is DESTROY in all caps? Perl on occasion uses purely
uppercase function names as a convention to indicate that
the function will be automatically called by Perl in some
way. Others that are called implicitly include BEGIN,
END, AUTOLOAD, plus all methods used by tied objects,
described in the perltie manpage.
In really good object-oriented programming languages, the
user doesn't care when the destructor is called. It just
happens when it's supposed to. In low-level languages
without any GC at all, there's no way to depend on this
happening at the right time, so the programmer must
explicitly call the destructor to clean up memory and
state, crossing their fingers that it's the right time to
do so. Unlike C++, an object destructor is nearly never
needed in Perl, and even when it is, explicit invocation
is uncalled for. In the case of our Person class, we
don't need a destructor because Perl takes care of simple
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matters like memory deallocation.
The only situation where Perl's reference-based GC won't
work is when there's a circularity in the data structure,
such as:
$this->{WHATEVER} = $this;
In that case, you must delete the self-reference manually
if you expect your program not to leak memory. While
admittedly error-prone, this is the best we can do right
now. Nonetheless, rest assured that when your program is
finished, its objects' destructors are all duly called.
So you are guaranteed that an object eventually gets
properly destroyed, except in the unique case of a program
that never exits. (If you're running Perl embedded in
another application, this full GC pass happens a bit more
frequently--whenever a thread shuts down.)
Other Object Methods
The methods we've talked about so far have either been
constructors or else simple "data methods", interfaces to
data stored in the object. These are a bit like an
object's data members in the C++ world, except that
strangers don't access them as data. Instead, they should
only access the object's data indirectly via its methods.
This is an important rule: in Perl, access to an object's
data should only be made through methods.
Perl doesn't impose restrictions on who gets to use which
methods. The public-versus-private distinction is by
convention, not syntax. (Well, unless you use the Alias
module described below in the section on Data Members as
Variables.) Occasionally you'll see method names
beginning or ending with an underscore or two. This
marking is a convention indicating that the methods are
private to that class alone and sometimes to its closest
acquaintances, its immediate subclasses. But this
distinction is not enforced by Perl itself. It's up to
the programmer to behave.
There's no reason to limit methods to those that simply
access data. Methods can do anything at all. The key
point is that they're invoked against an object or a
class. Let's say we'd like object methods that do more
than fetch or set one particular field.
sub exclaim {
my $self = shift;
return sprintf "Hi, I'm %s, age %d, working with %s",
$self->{NAME}, $self->{AGE}, join(", ", $self->{PEERS});
}
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Or maybe even one like this:
sub happy_birthday {
my $self = shift;
return ++$self->{AGE};
}
Some might argue that one should go at these this way:
sub exclaim {
my $self = shift;
return sprintf "Hi, I'm %s, age %d, working with %s",
$self->name, $self->age, join(", ", $self->peers);
}
sub happy_birthday {
my $self = shift;
return $self->age( $self->age() + 1 );
}
But since these methods are all executing in the class
itself, this may not be critical. There are tradeoffs to
be made. Using direct hash access is faster (about an
order of magnitude faster, in fact), and it's more
convenient when you want to interpolate in strings. But
using methods (the external interface) internally shields
not just the users of your class but even you yourself
from changes in your data representation.
Class Data
What about "class data", data items common to each object
in a class? What would you want that for? Well, in your
Person class, you might like to keep track of the total
people alive. How do you implement that?
You could make it a global variable called
$Person::Census. But about only reason you'd do that
would be if you wanted people to be able to get at your
class data directly. They could just say $Person::Census
and play around with it. Maybe this is ok in your design
scheme. You might even conceivably want to make it an
exported variable. To be exportable, a variable must be a
(package) global. If this were a traditional module
rather than an object-oriented one, you might do that.
While this approach is expected in most traditional
modules, it's generally considered rather poor form in
most object modules. In an object module, you should set
up a protective veil to separate interface from
implementation. So provide a class method to access class
data just as you provide object methods to access object
data.
So, you could still keep $Census as a package global and
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rely upon others to honor the contract of the module and
therefore not play around with its implementation. You
could even be supertricky and make $Census a tied object
as described in the perltie manpage, thereby intercepting
all accesses.
But more often than not, you just want to make your class
data a file-scoped lexical. To do so, simply put this at
the top of the file:
my $Census = 0;
Even though the scope of a my() normally expires when the
block in which it was declared is done (in this case the
whole file being required or used), Perl's deep binding of
lexical variables guarantees that the variable will not be
deallocated, remaining accessible to functions declared
within that scope. This doesn't work with global
variables given temporary values via local(), though.
Irrespective of whether you leave $Census a package global
or make it instead a file-scoped lexical, you should make
these changes to your Person::new() constructor:
sub new {
my $proto = shift;
my $class = ref($proto) || $proto;
my $self = {};
$Census++;
$self->{NAME} = undef;
$self->{AGE} = undef;
$self->{PEERS} = [];
bless ($self, $class);
return $self;
}
sub population {
return $Census;
}
Now that we've done this, we certainly do need a
destructor so that when Person is destroyed, the $Census
goes down. Here's how this could be done:
sub DESTROY { --$Census }
Notice how there's no memory to deallocate in the
destructor? That's something that Perl takes care of for
you all by itself.
Accessing Class Data
It turns out that this is not really a good way to go
about handling class data. A good scalable rule is that
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you must never reference class data directly from an
object method. Otherwise you aren't building a scalable,
inheritable class. The object must be the rendezvous
point for all operations, especially from an object
method. The globals (class data) would in some sense be
in the "wrong" package in your derived classes. In Perl,
methods execute in the context of the class they were
defined in, not that of the object that triggered them.
Therefore, namespace visibility of package globals in
methods is unrelated to inheritance.
Got that? Maybe not. Ok, let's say that some other class
"borrowed" (well, inherited) the DESTROY method as it was
defined above. When those objects are destroyed, the
original $Census variable will be altered, not the one in
the new class's package namespace. Perhaps this is what
you want, but probably it isn't.
Here's how to fix this. We'll store a reference to the
data in the value accessed by the hash key "_CENSUS". Why
the underscore? Well, mostly because an initial
underscore already conveys strong feelings of magicalness
to a C programmer. It's really just a mnemonic device to
remind ourselves that this field is special and not to be
used as a public data member in the same way that NAME,
AGE, and PEERS are. (Because we've been developing this
code under the strict pragma, prior to perl version 5.004
we'll have to quote the field name.)
sub new {
my $proto = shift;
my $class = ref($proto) || $proto;
my $self = {};
$self->{NAME} = undef;
$self->{AGE} = undef;
$self->{PEERS} = [];
# "private" data
$self->{"_CENSUS"} = \$Census;
bless ($self, $class);
++ ${ $self->{"_CENSUS"} };
return $self;
}
sub population {
my $self = shift;
if (ref $self) {
return ${ $self->{"_CENSUS"} };
} else {
return $Census;
}
}
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sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
-- ${ $self->{"_CENSUS"} };
}
Debugging Methods
It's common for a class to have a debugging mechanism.
For example, you might want to see when objects are
created or destroyed. To do that, add a debugging
variable as a file-scoped lexical. For this, we'll pull
in the standard Carp module to emit our warnings and fatal
messages. That way messages will come out with the
caller's filename and line number instead of our own; if
we wanted them to be from our own perspective, we'd just
use die() and warn() directly instead of croak() and
carp() respectively.
use Carp;
my $Debugging = 0;
Now add a new class method to access the variable.
sub debug {
my $class = shift;
if (ref $class) { confess "Class method called as object method" }
unless (@_ == 1) { confess "usage: CLASSNAME->debug(level)" }
$Debugging = shift;
}
Now fix up DESTROY to murmur a bit as the moribund object
expires:
sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
if ($Debugging) { carp "Destroying $self " . $self->name }
-- ${ $self->{"_CENSUS"} };
}
One could conceivably make a per-object debug state. That
way you could call both of these:
Person->debug(1); # entire class
$him->debug(1); # just this object
To do so, we need our debugging method to be a "bimodal"
one, one that works on both classes and objects.
Therefore, adjust the debug() and DESTROY methods as
follows:
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sub debug {
my $self = shift;
confess "usage: thing->debug(level)" unless @_ == 1;
my $level = shift;
if (ref($self)) {
$self->{"_DEBUG"} = $level; # just myself
} else {
$Debugging = $level; # whole class
}
}
sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
if ($Debugging || $self->{"_DEBUG"}) {
carp "Destroying $self " . $self->name;
}
-- ${ $self->{"_CENSUS"} };
}
What happens if a derived class (which we'll call
Employee) inherits methods from this Person base class?
Then Employee->debug(), when called as a class method,
manipulates $Person::Debugging not $Employee::Debugging.
Class Destructors
The object destructor handles the death of each distinct
object. But sometimes you want a bit of cleanup when the
entire class is shut down, which currently only happens
when the program exits. To make such a class destructor,
create a function in that class's package named END. This
works just like the END function in traditional modules,
meaning that it gets called whenever your program exits
unless it execs or dies of an uncaught signal. For
example,
sub END {
if ($Debugging) {
print "All persons are going away now.\n";
}
}
When the program exits, all the class destructors (END
functions) are be called in the opposite order that they
were loaded in (LIFO order).
Documenting the Interface
And there you have it: we've just shown you the
implementation of this Person class. Its interface would
be its documentation. Usually this means putting it in
pod ("plain old documentation") format right there in the
same file. In our Person example, we would place the
following docs anywhere in the Person.pm file. Even
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though it looks mostly like code, it's not. It's embedded
documentation such as would be used by the pod2man,
pod2html, or pod2text programs. The Perl compiler ignores
pods entirely, just as the translators ignore code.
Here's an example of some pods describing the informal
interface:
=head1 NAME
Person - class to implement people
=head1 SYNOPSIS
use Person;
#################
# class methods #
#################
$ob = Person->new;
$count = Person->population;
#######################
# object data methods #
#######################
### get versions ###
$who = $ob->name;
$years = $ob->age;
@pals = $ob->peers;
### set versions ###
$ob->name("Jason");
$ob->age(23);
$ob->peers( "Norbert", "Rhys", "Phineas" );
########################
# other object methods #
########################
$phrase = $ob->exclaim;
$ob->happy_birthday;
=head1 DESCRIPTION
The Person class implements dah dee dah dee dah....
That's all there is to the matter of interface versus
implementation. A programmer who opens up the module and
plays around with all the private little shiny bits that
were safely locked up behind the interface contract has
voided the warranty, and you shouldn't worry about their
fate.
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Aggregation
Suppose you later want to change the class to implement
better names. Perhaps you'd like to support both given
names (called Christian names, irrespective of one's
religion) and family names (called surnames), plus
nicknames and titles. If users of your Person class have
been properly accessing it through its documented
interface, then you can easily change the underlying
implementation. If they haven't, then they lose and it's
their fault for breaking the contract and voiding their
warranty.
To do this, we'll make another class, this one called
Fullname. What's the Fullname class look like? To answer
that question, you have to first figure out how you want
to use it. How about we use it this way:
$him = Person->new();
$him->fullname->title("St");
$him->fullname->christian("Thomas");
$him->fullname->surname("Aquinas");
$him->fullname->nickname("Tommy");
printf "His normal name is %s\n", $him->name;
printf "But his real name is %s\n", $him->fullname->as_string;
Ok. To do this, we'll change Person::new() so that it
supports a full name field this way:
sub new {
my $proto = shift;
my $class = ref($proto) || $proto;
my $self = {};
$self->{FULLNAME} = Fullname->new();
$self->{AGE} = undef;
$self->{PEERS} = [];
$self->{"_CENSUS"} = \$Census;
bless ($self, $class);
++ ${ $self->{"_CENSUS"} };
return $self;
}
sub fullname {
my $self = shift;
return $self->{FULLNAME};
}
Then to support old code, define Person::name() this way:
sub name {
my $self = shift;
return $self->{FULLNAME}->nickname(@_)
|| $self->{FULLNAME}->christian(@_);
}
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Here's the Fullname class. We'll use the same technique
of using a hash reference to hold data fields, and methods
by the appropriate name to access them:
package Fullname;
use strict;
sub new {
my $proto = shift;
my $class = ref($proto) || $proto;
my $self = {
TITLE => undef,
CHRISTIAN => undef,
SURNAME => undef,
NICK => undef,
};
bless ($self, $class);
return $self;
}
sub christian {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{CHRISTIAN} = shift }
return $self->{CHRISTIAN};
}
sub surname {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{SURNAME} = shift }
return $self->{SURNAME};
}
sub nickname {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{NICK} = shift }
return $self->{NICK};
}
sub title {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{TITLE} = shift }
return $self->{TITLE};
}
sub as_string {
my $self = shift;
my $name = join(" ", @$self{'CHRISTIAN', 'SURNAME'});
if ($self->{TITLE}) {
$name = $self->{TITLE} . " " . $name;
}
return $name;
}
1;
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Finally, here's the test program:
#!/usr/bin/perl -w
use strict;
use Person;
sub END { show_census() }
sub show_census () {
printf "Current population: %d\n", Person->population;
}
Person->debug(1);
show_census();
my $him = Person->new();
$him->fullname->christian("Thomas");
$him->fullname->surname("Aquinas");
$him->fullname->nickname("Tommy");
$him->fullname->title("St");
$him->age(1);
printf "%s is really %s.\n", $him->name, $him->fullname;
printf "%s's age: %d.\n", $him->name, $him->age;
$him->happy_birthday;
printf "%s's age: %d.\n", $him->name, $him->age;
show_census();
Inheritance
Object-oriented programming systems all support some
notion of inheritance. Inheritance means allowing one
class to piggy-back on top of another one so you don't
have to write the same code again and again. It's about
software reuse, and therefore related to Laziness, the
principal virtue of a programmer. (The import/export
mechanisms in traditional modules are also a form of code
reuse, but a simpler one than the true inheritance that
you find in object modules.)
Sometimes the syntax of inheritance is built into the core
of the language, and sometimes it's not. Perl has no
special syntax for specifying the class (or classes) to
inherit from. Instead, it's all strictly in the
semantics. Each package can have a variable called @ISA,
which governs (method) inheritance. If you try to call a
method on an object or class, and that method is not found
in that object's package, Perl then looks to @ISA for
other packages to go looking through in search of the
missing method.
Like the special per-package variables recognized by
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Exporter (such as @EXPORT, @EXPORT_OK, @EXPORT_FAIL,
%EXPORT_TAGS, and $VERSION), the @ISA array must be a
package-scoped global and not a file-scoped lexical
created via my(). Most classes have just one item in
their @ISA array. In this case, we have what's called
"single inheritance", or SI for short.
Consider this class:
package Employee;
use Person;
@ISA = ("Person");
1;
Not a lot to it, eh? All it's doing so far is loading in
another class and stating that this one will inherit
methods from that other class if need be. We have given
it none of its own methods. We rely upon an Employee to
behave just like a Person.
Setting up an empty class like this is called the "empty
subclass test"; that is, making a derived class that does
nothing but inherit from a base class. If the original
base class has been designed properly, then the new
derived class can be used as a drop-in replacement for the
old one. This means you should be able to write a program
like this:
use Employee;
my $empl = Employee->new();
$empl->name("Jason");
$empl->age(23);
printf "%s is age %d.\n", $empl->name, $empl->age;
By proper design, we mean always using the two-argument
form of bless(), avoiding direct access of global data,
and not exporting anything. If you look back at the
Person::new() function we defined above, we were careful
to do that. There's a bit of package data used in the
constructor, but the reference to this is stored on the
object itself and all other methods access package data
via that reference, so we should be ok.
What do we mean by the Person::new() function -- isn't
that actually a method? Well, in principle, yes. A
method is just a function that expects as its first
argument a class name (package) or object (blessed
reference). Person::new() is the function that both the
Person->new() method and the Employee->new() method end up
calling. Understand that while a method call looks a lot
like a function call, they aren't really quite the same,
and if you treat them as the same, you'll very soon be
left with nothing but broken programs. First, the actual
underlying calling conventions are different: method calls
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get an extra argument. Second, function calls don't do
inheritance, but methods do.
Method Call Resulting Function Call
----------- ------------------------
Person->new() Person::new("Person")
Employee->new() Person::new("Employee")
So don't use function calls when you mean to call a
method.
If an employee is just a Person, that's not all too very
interesting. So let's add some other methods. We'll give
our employee data fields to access their salary, their
employee ID, and their start date.
If you're getting a little tired of creating all these
nearly identical methods just to get at the object's data,
do not despair. Later, we'll describe several different
convenience mechanisms for shortening this up. Meanwhile,
here's the straight-forward way:
sub salary {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{SALARY} = shift }
return $self->{SALARY};
}
sub id_number {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{ID} = shift }
return $self->{ID};
}
sub start_date {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{START_DATE} = shift }
return $self->{START_DATE};
}
Overridden Methods
What happens when both a derived class and its base class
have the same method defined? Well, then you get the
derived class's version of that method. For example,
let's say that we want the peers() method called on an
employee to act a bit differently. Instead of just
returning the list of peer names, let's return slightly
different strings. So doing this:
$empl->peers("Peter", "Paul", "Mary");
printf "His peers are: %s\n", join(", ", $empl->peers);
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will produce:
His peers are: PEON=PETER, PEON=PAUL, PEON=MARY
To do this, merely add this definition into the
Employee.pm file:
sub peers {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { @{ $self->{PEERS} } = @_ }
return map { "PEON=\U$_" } @{ $self->{PEERS} };
}
There, we've just demonstrated the high-falutin' concept
known in certain circles as polymorphism. We've taken on
the form and behaviour of an existing object, and then
we've altered it to suit our own purposes. This is a form
of Laziness. (Getting polymorphed is also what happens
when the wizard decides you'd look better as a frog.)
Every now and then you'll want to have a method call
trigger both its derived class (also known as "subclass")
version as well as its base class (also known as
"superclass") version. In practice, constructors and
destructors are likely to want to do this, and it probably
also makes sense in the debug() method we showed
previously.
To do this, add this to Employee.pm:
use Carp;
my $Debugging = 0;
sub debug {
my $self = shift;
confess "usage: thing->debug(level)" unless @_ == 1;
my $level = shift;
if (ref($self)) {
$self->{"_DEBUG"} = $level;
} else {
$Debugging = $level; # whole class
}
Person::debug($self, $Debugging); # don't really do this
}
As you see, we turn around and call the Person package's
debug() function. But this is far too fragile for good
design. What if Person doesn't have a debug() function,
but is inheriting its debug() method from elsewhere? It
would have been slightly better to say
Person->debug($Debugging);
But even that's got too much hard-coded. It's somewhat
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better to say
$self->Person::debug($Debugging);
Which is a funny way to say to start looking for a debug()
method up in Person. This strategy is more often seen on
overridden object methods than on overridden class
methods.
There is still something a bit off here. We've hard-coded
our superclass's name. This in particular is bad if you
change which classes you inherit from, or add others.
Fortunately, the pseudoclass SUPER comes to the rescue
here.
$self->SUPER::debug($Debugging);
This way it starts looking in my class's @ISA. This only
makes sense from within a method call, though. Don't try
to access anything in SUPER:: from anywhere else, because
it doesn't exist outside an overridden method call.
Things are getting a bit complicated here. Have we done
anything we shouldn't? As before, one way to test whether
we're designing a decent class is via the empty subclass
test. Since we already have an Employee class that we're
trying to check, we'd better get a new empty subclass that
can derive from Employee. Here's one:
package Boss;
use Employee; # :-)
@ISA = qw(Employee);
And here's the test program:
#!/usr/bin/perl -w
use strict;
use Boss;
Boss->debug(1);
my $boss = Boss->new();
$boss->fullname->title("Don");
$boss->fullname->surname("Pichon Alvarez");
$boss->fullname->christian("Federico Jesus");
$boss->fullname->nickname("Fred");
$boss->age(47);
$boss->peers("Frank", "Felipe", "Faust");
printf "%s is age %d.\n", $boss->fullname, $boss->age;
printf "His peers are: %s\n", join(", ", $boss->peers);
Running it, we see that we're still ok. If you'd like to
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dump out your object in a nice format, somewhat like the
way the 'x' command works in the debugger, you could use
the Data::Dumper module from CPAN this way:
use Data::Dumper;
print "Here's the boss:\n";
print Dumper($boss);
Which shows us something like this:
Here's the boss:
$VAR1 = bless( {
_CENSUS => \1,
FULLNAME => bless( {
TITLE => 'Don',
SURNAME => 'Pichon Alvarez',
NICK => 'Fred',
CHRISTIAN => 'Federico Jesus'
}, 'Fullname' ),
AGE => 47,
PEERS => [
'Frank',
'Felipe',
'Faust'
]
}, 'Boss' );
Hm.... something's missing there. What about the salary,
start date, and ID fields? Well, we never set them to
anything, even undef, so they don't show up in the hash's
keys. The Employee class has no new() method of its own,
and the new() method in Person doesn't know about
Employees. (Nor should it: proper OO design dictates that
a subclass be allowed to know about its immediate
superclass, but never vice-versa.) So let's fix up
Employee::new() this way:
sub new {
my $proto = shift;
my $class = ref($proto) || $proto;
my $self = $class->SUPER::new();
$self->{SALARY} = undef;
$self->{ID} = undef;
$self->{START_DATE} = undef;
bless ($self, $class); # reconsecrate
return $self;
}
Now if you dump out an Employee or Boss object, you'll
find that new fields show up there now.
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Multiple Inheritance
Ok, at the risk of confusing beginners and annoying OO
gurus, it's time to confess that Perl's object system
includes that controversial notion known as multiple
inheritance, or MI for short. All this means is that
rather than having just one parent class who in turn might
itself have a parent class, etc., that you can directly
inherit from two or more parents. It's true that some
uses of MI can get you into trouble, although hopefully
not quite so much trouble with Perl as with dubiously-OO
languages like C++.
The way it works is actually pretty simple: just put more
than one package name in your @ISA array. When it comes
time for Perl to go finding methods for your object, it
looks at each of these packages in order. Well, kinda.
It's actually a fully recursive, depth-first order.
Consider a bunch of @ISA arrays like this:
@First::ISA = qw( Alpha );
@Second::ISA = qw( Beta );
@Third::ISA = qw( First Second );
If you have an object of class Third:
my $ob = Third->new();
$ob->spin();
How do we find a spin() method (or a new() method for that
matter)? Because the search is depth-first, classes will
be looked up in the following order: Third, First, Alpha,
Second, and Beta.
In practice, few class modules have been seen that
actually make use of MI. One nearly always chooses simple
containership of one class within another over MI. That's
why our Person object contained a Fullname object. That
doesn't mean it was one.
However, there is one particular area where MI in Perl is
rampant: borrowing another class's class methods. This is
rather common, especially with some bundled "objectless"
classes, like Exporter, DynaLoader, AutoLoader, and
SelfLoader. These classes do not provide constructors;
they exist only so you may inherit their class methods.
(It's not entirely clear why inheritance was done here
rather than traditional module importation.)
For example, here is the POSIX module's @ISA:
package POSIX;
@ISA = qw(Exporter DynaLoader);
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The POSIX module isn't really an object module, but then,
neither are Exporter or DynaLoader. They're just lending
their classes' behaviours to POSIX.
Why don't people use MI for object methods much? One
reason is that it can have complicated side-effects. For
one thing, your inheritance graph (no longer a tree) might
converge back to the same base class. Although Perl
guards against recursive inheritance, merely having
parents who are related to each other via a common
ancestor, incestuous though it sounds, is not forbidden.
What if in our Third class shown above we wanted its new()
method to also call both overridden constructors in its
two parent classes? The SUPER notation would only find
the first one. Also, what about if the Alpha and Beta
classes both had a common ancestor, like Nought? If you
kept climbing up the inheritance tree calling overridden
methods, you'd end up calling Nought::new() twice, which
might well be a bad idea.
UNIVERSAL: The Root of All Objects
Wouldn't it be convenient if all objects were rooted at
some ultimate base class? That way you could give every
object common methods without having to go and add it to
each and every @ISA. Well, it turns out that you can.
You don't see it, but Perl tacitly and irrevocably assumes
that there's an extra element at the end of @ISA: the
class UNIVERSAL. In version 5.003, there were no
predefined methods there, but you could put whatever you
felt like into it.
However, as of version 5.004 (or some subversive releases,
like 5.003_08), UNIVERSAL has some methods in it already.
These are builtin to your Perl binary, so they don't take
any extra time to load. Predefined methods include isa(),
can(), and VERSION(). isa() tells you whether an object
or class "is" another one without having to traverse the
hierarchy yourself:
$has_io = $fd->isa("IO::Handle");
$itza_handle = IO::Socket->isa("IO::Handle");
The can() method, called against that object or class,
reports back whether its string argument is a callable
method name in that class. In fact, it gives you back a
function reference to that method:
$his_print_method = $obj->can('as_string');
Finally, the VERSION method checks whether the class (or
the object's class) has a package global called $VERSION
that's high enough, as in:
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Some_Module->VERSION(3.0);
$his_vers = $ob->VERSION();
However, we don't usually call VERSION ourselves.
(Remember that an all uppercase function name is a Perl
convention that indicates that the function will be
automatically used by Perl in some way.) In this case, it
happens when you say
use Some_Module 3.0;
If you wanted to add version checking to your Person class
explained above, just add this to Person.pm:
use vars qw($VERSION);
$VERSION = '1.1';
and then in Employee.pm could you can say
use Employee 1.1;
And it would make sure that you have at least that version
number or higher available. This is not the same as
loading in that exact version number. No mechanism
currently exists for concurrent installation of multiple
versions of a module. Lamentably.
Alternate Object Representations
Nothing requires objects to be implemented as hash
references. An object can be any sort of reference so
long as its referent has been suitably blessed. That
means scalar, array, and code references are also fair
game.
A scalar would work if the object has only one datum to
hold. An array would work for most cases, but makes
inheritance a bit dodgy because you have to invent new
indices for the derived classes.
Arrays as Objects
If the user of your class honors the contract and sticks
to the advertised interface, then you can change its
underlying interface if you feel like it. Here's another
implementation that conforms to the same interface
specification. This time we'll use an array reference
instead of a hash reference to represent the object.
package Person;
use strict;
my($NAME, $AGE, $PEERS) = ( 0 .. 2 );
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############################################
## the object constructor (array version) ##
############################################
sub new {
my $self = [];
$self->[$NAME] = undef; # this is unnecessary
$self->[$AGE] = undef; # as is this
$self->[$PEERS] = []; # but this isn't, really
bless($self);
return $self;
}
sub name {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->[$NAME] = shift }
return $self->[$NAME];
}
sub age {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { $self->[$AGE] = shift }
return $self->[$AGE];
}
sub peers {
my $self = shift;
if (@_) { @{ $self->[$PEERS] } = @_ }
return @{ $self->[$PEERS] };
}
1; # so the require or use succeeds
You might guess that the array access would be a lot
faster than the hash access, but they're actually
comparable. The array is a little bit faster, but not
more than ten or fifteen percent, even when you replace
the variables above like $AGE with literal numbers, like
1. A bigger difference between the two approaches can be
found in memory use. A hash representation takes up more
memory than an array representation because you have to
allocate memory for the keys as well as for the values.
However, it really isn't that bad, especially since as of
version 5.004, memory is only allocated once for a given
hash key, no matter how many hashes have that key. It's
expected that sometime in the future, even these
differences will fade into obscurity as more efficient
underlying representations are devised.
Still, the tiny edge in speed (and somewhat larger one in
memory) is enough to make some programmers choose an array
representation for simple classes. There's still a little
problem with scalability, though, because later in life
when you feel like creating subclasses, you'll find that
hashes just work out better.
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Closures as Objects
Using a code reference to represent an object offers some
fascinating possibilities. We can create a new anonymous
function (closure) who alone in all the world can see the
object's data. This is because we put the data into an
anonymous hash that's lexically visible only to the
closure we create, bless, and return as the object. This
object's methods turn around and call the closure as a
regular subroutine call, passing it the field we want to
affect. (Yes, the double-function call is slow, but if
you wanted fast, you wouldn't be using objects at all, eh?
:-)
Use would be similar to before:
use Person;
$him = Person->new();
$him->name("Jason");
$him->age(23);
$him->peers( [ "Norbert", "Rhys", "Phineas" ] );
printf "%s is %d years old.\n", $him->name, $him->age;
print "His peers are: ", join(", ", @{$him->peers}), "\n";
but the implementation would be radically, perhaps even
sublimely different:
package Person;
sub new {
my $that = shift;
my $class = ref($that) || $that;
my $self = {
NAME => undef,
AGE => undef,
PEERS => [],
};
my $closure = sub {
my $field = shift;
if (@_) { $self->{$field} = shift }
return $self->{$field};
};
bless($closure, $class);
return $closure;
}
sub name { &{ $_[0] }("NAME", @_[ 1 .. $#_ ] ) }
sub age { &{ $_[0] }("AGE", @_[ 1 .. $#_ ] ) }
sub peers { &{ $_[0] }("PEERS", @_[ 1 .. $#_ ] ) }
1;
Because this object is hidden behind a code reference,
it's probably a bit mysterious to those whose background
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is more firmly rooted in standard procedural or object-
based programming languages than in functional programming
languages whence closures derive. The object created and
returned by the new() method is itself not a data
reference as we've seen before. It's an anonymous code
reference that has within it access to a specific version
(lexical binding and instantiation) of the object's data,
which are stored in the private variable $self. Although
this is the same function each time, it contains a
different version of $self.
When a method like $him->name("Jason") is called, its
implicit zeroth argument is the invoking object--just as
it is with all method calls. But in this case, it's our
code reference (something like a function pointer in C++,
but with deep binding of lexical variables). There's not
a lot to be done with a code reference beyond calling it,
so that's just what we do when we say &{$_[0]}. This is
just a regular function call, not a method call. The
initial argument is the string "NAME", and any remaining
arguments are whatever had been passed to the method
itself.
Once we're executing inside the closure that had been
created in new(), the $self hash reference suddenly
becomes visible. The closure grabs its first argument
("NAME" in this case because that's what the name() method
passed it), and uses that string to subscript into the
private hash hidden in its unique version of $self.
Nothing under the sun will allow anyone outside the
executing method to be able to get at this hidden data.
Well, nearly nothing. You could single step through the
program using the debugger and find out the pieces while
you're in the method, but everyone else is out of luck.
There, if that doesn't excite the Scheme folks, then I
just don't know what will. Translation of this technique
into C++, Java, or any other braindead-static language is
left as a futile exercise for aficionados of those camps.
You could even add a bit of nosiness via the caller()
function and make the closure refuse to operate unless
called via its own package. This would no doubt satisfy
certain fastidious concerns of programming police and
related puritans.
If you were wondering when Hubris, the third principle
virtue of a programmer, would come into play, here you
have it. (More seriously, Hubris is just the pride in
craftsmanship that comes from having written a sound bit
of well-designed code.)
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AUTOLOAD: Proxy Methods
Autoloading is a way to intercept calls to undefined
methods. An autoload routine may choose to create a new
function on the fly, either loaded from disk or perhaps
just eval()ed right there. This define-on-the-fly
strategy is why it's called autoloading.
But that's only one possible approach. Another one is to
just have the autoloaded method itself directly provide
the requested service. When used in this way, you may
think of autoloaded methods as "proxy" methods.
When Perl tries to call an undefined function in a
particular package and that function is not defined, it
looks for a function in that same package called AUTOLOAD.
If one exists, it's called with the same arguments as the
original function would have had. The fully-qualified
name of the function is stored in that package's global
variable $AUTOLOAD. Once called, the function can do
anything it would like, including defining a new function
by the right name, and then doing a really fancy kind of
goto right to it, erasing itself from the call stack.
What does this have to do with objects? After all, we
keep talking about functions, not methods. Well, since a
method is just a function with an extra argument and some
fancier semantics about where it's found, we can use
autoloading for methods, too. Perl doesn't start looking
for an AUTOLOAD method until it has exhausted the
recursive hunt up through @ISA, though. Some programmers
have even been known to define a UNIVERSAL::AUTOLOAD
method to trap unresolved method calls to any kind of
object.
Autoloaded Data Methods
You probably began to get a little suspicious about the
duplicated code way back earlier when we first showed you
the Person class, and then later the Employee class. Each
method used to access the hash fields looked virtually
identical. This should have tickled that great
programming virtue, Impatience, but for the time, we let
Laziness win out, and so did nothing. Proxy methods can
cure this.
Instead of writing a new function every time we want a new
data field, we'll use the autoload mechanism to generate
(actually, mimic) methods on the fly. To verify that
we're accessing a valid member, we will check against an
_permitted (pronounced "under-permitted") field, which is
a reference to a file-scoped lexical (like a C file
static) hash of permitted fields in this record called
%fields. Why the underscore? For the same reason as the
_CENSUS field we once used: as a marker that means "for
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internal use only".
Here's what the module initialization code and class
constructor will look like when taking this approach:
package Person;
use Carp;
use vars qw($AUTOLOAD); # it's a package global
my %fields = (
name => undef,
age => undef,
peers => undef,
);
sub new {
my $that = shift;
my $class = ref($that) || $that;
my $self = {
_permitted => \%fields,
%fields,
};
bless $self, $class;
return $self;
}
If we wanted our record to have default values, we could
fill those in where current we have undef in the %fields
hash.
Notice how we saved a reference to our class data on the
object itself? Remember that it's important to access
class data through the object itself instead of having any
method reference %fields directly, or else you won't have
a decent inheritance.
The real magic, though, is going to reside in our proxy
method, which will handle all calls to undefined methods
for objects of class Person (or subclasses of Person). It
has to be called AUTOLOAD. Again, it's all caps because
it's called for us implicitly by Perl itself, not by a
user directly.
sub AUTOLOAD {
my $self = shift;
my $type = ref($self)
or croak "$self is not an object";
my $name = $AUTOLOAD;
$name =~ s/.*://; # strip fully-qualified portion
unless (exists $self->{_permitted}->{$name} ) {
croak "Can't access `$name' field in class $type";
}
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if (@_) {
return $self->{$name} = shift;
} else {
return $self->{$name};
}
}
Pretty nifty, eh? All we have to do to add new data
fields is modify %fields. No new functions need be
written.
I could have avoided the _permitted field entirely, but I
wanted to demonstrate how to store a reference to class
data on the object so you wouldn't have to access that
class data directly from an object method.
Inherited Autoloaded Data Methods
But what about inheritance? Can we define our Employee
class similarly? Yes, so long as we're careful enough.
Here's how to be careful:
package Employee;
use Person;
use strict;
use vars qw(@ISA);
@ISA = qw(Person);
my %fields = (
id => undef,
salary => undef,
);
sub new {
my $that = shift;
my $class = ref($that) || $that;
my $self = bless $that->SUPER::new(), $class;
my($element);
foreach $element (keys %fields) {
$self->{_permitted}->{$element} = $fields{$element};
}
@{$self}{keys %fields} = values %fields;
return $self;
}
Once we've done this, we don't even need to have an
AUTOLOAD function in the Employee package, because we'll
grab Person's version of that via inheritance, and it will
all work out just fine.
Metaclassical Tools
Even though proxy methods can provide a more convenient
approach to making more struct-like classes than tediously
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coding up data methods as functions, it still leaves a bit
to be desired. For one thing, it means you have to handle
bogus calls that you don't mean to trap via your proxy.
It also means you have to be quite careful when dealing
with inheritance, as detailed above.
Perl programmers have responded to this by creating
several different class construction classes. These
metaclasses are classes that create other classes. A
couple worth looking at are Class::Struct and Alias.
These and other related metaclasses can be found in the
modules directory on CPAN.
Class::Struct
One of the older ones is Class::Struct. In fact, its
syntax and interface were sketched out long before perl5
even solidified into a real thing. What it does is
provide you a way to "declare" a class as having objects
whose fields are of a specific type. The function that
does this is called, not surprisingly enough, struct().
Because structures or records are not base types in Perl,
each time you want to create a class to provide a record-
like data object, you yourself have to define a new()
method, plus separate data-access methods for each of that
record's fields. You'll quickly become bored with this
process. The Class::Struct::struct() function alleviates
this tedium.
Here's a simple example of using it:
use Class::Struct qw(struct);
use Jobbie; # user-defined; see below
struct 'Fred' => {
one => '$',
many => '@',
profession => Jobbie, # calls Jobbie->new()
};
$ob = Fred->new;
$ob->one("hmmmm");
$ob->many(0, "here");
$ob->many(1, "you");
$ob->many(2, "go");
print "Just set: ", $ob->many(2), "\n";
$ob->profession->salary(10_000);
You can declare types in the struct to be basic Perl
types, or user-defined types (classes). User types will
be initialized by calling that class's new() method.
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Here's a real-world example of using struct generation.
Let's say you wanted to override Perl's idea of
gethostbyname() and gethostbyaddr() so that they would
return objects that acted like C structures. We don't
care about high-falutin' OO gunk. All we want is for
these objects to act like structs in the C sense.
use Socket;
use Net::hostent;
$h = gethostbyname("perl.com"); # object return
printf "perl.com's real name is %s, address %s\n",
$h->name, inet_ntoa($h->addr);
Here's how to do this using the Class::Struct module. The
crux is going to be this call:
struct 'Net::hostent' => [ # note bracket
name => '$',
aliases => '@',
addrtype => '$',
'length' => '$',
addr_list => '@',
];
Which creates object methods of those names and types. It
even creates a new() method for us.
We could also have implemented our object this way:
struct 'Net::hostent' => { # note brace
name => '$',
aliases => '@',
addrtype => '$',
'length' => '$',
addr_list => '@',
};
and then Class::Struct would have used an anonymous hash
as the object type, instead of an anonymous array. The
array is faster and smaller, but the hash works out better
if you eventually want to do inheritance. Since for this
struct-like object we aren't planning on inheritance, this
time we'll opt for better speed and size over better
flexibility.
Here's the whole implementation:
package Net::hostent;
use strict;
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BEGIN {
use Exporter ();
use vars qw(@EXPORT @EXPORT_OK %EXPORT_TAGS);
@EXPORT = qw(gethostbyname gethostbyaddr gethost);
@EXPORT_OK = qw(
$h_name @h_aliases
$h_addrtype $h_length
@h_addr_list $h_addr
);
%EXPORT_TAGS = ( FIELDS => [ @EXPORT_OK, @EXPORT ] );
}
use vars @EXPORT_OK;
# Class::Struct forbids use of @ISA
sub import { goto &Exporter::import }
use Class::Struct qw(struct);
struct 'Net::hostent' => [
name => '$',
aliases => '@',
addrtype => '$',
'length' => '$',
addr_list => '@',
];
sub addr { shift->addr_list->[0] }
sub populate (@) {
return unless @_;
my $hob = new(); # Class::Struct made this!
$h_name = $hob->[0] = $_[0];
@h_aliases = @{ $hob->[1] } = split ' ', $_[1];
$h_addrtype = $hob->[2] = $_[2];
$h_length = $hob->[3] = $_[3];
$h_addr = $_[4];
@h_addr_list = @{ $hob->[4] } = @_[ (4 .. $#_) ];
return $hob;
}
sub gethostbyname ($) { populate(CORE::gethostbyname(shift)) }
sub gethostbyaddr ($;$) {
my ($addr, $addrtype);
$addr = shift;
require Socket unless @_;
$addrtype = @_ ? shift : Socket::AF_INET();
populate(CORE::gethostbyaddr($addr, $addrtype))
}
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sub gethost($) {
if ($_[0] =~ /^\d+(?:\.\d+(?:\.\d+(?:\.\d+)?)?)?$/) {
require Socket;
&gethostbyaddr(Socket::inet_aton(shift));
} else {
&gethostbyname;
}
}
1;
We've snuck in quite a fair bit of other concepts besides
just dynamic class creation, like overriding core
functions, import/export bits, function prototyping,
short-cut function call via &whatever, and function
replacement with goto &whatever. These all mostly make
sense from the perspective of a traditional module, but as
you can see, we can also use them in an object module.
You can look at other object-based, struct-like overrides
of core functions in the 5.004 release of Perl in
File::stat, Net::hostent, Net::netent, Net::protoent,
Net::servent, Time::gmtime, Time::localtime, User::grent,
and User::pwent. These modules have a final component
that's all lowercase, by convention reserved for compiler
pragmas, because they affect the compilation and change a
builtin function. They also have the type names that a C
programmer would most expect.
Data Members as Variables
If you're used to C++ objects, then you're accustomed to
being able to get at an object's data members as simple
variables from within a method. The Alias module provides
for this, as well as a good bit more, such as the
possibility of private methods that the object can call
but folks outside the class cannot.
Here's an example of creating a Person using the Alias
module. When you update these magical instance variables,
you automatically update value fields in the hash.
Convenient, eh?
package Person;
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# this is the same as before...
sub new {
my $that = shift;
my $class = ref($that) || $that;
my $self = {
NAME => undef,
AGE => undef,
PEERS => [],
};
bless($self, $class);
return $self;
}
use Alias qw(attr);
use vars qw($NAME $AGE $PEERS);
sub name {
my $self = attr shift;
if (@_) { $NAME = shift; }
return $NAME;
}
sub age {
my $self = attr shift;
if (@_) { $AGE = shift; }
return $AGE;
}
sub peers {
my $self = attr shift;
if (@_) { @PEERS = @_; }
return @PEERS;
}
sub exclaim {
my $self = attr shift;
return sprintf "Hi, I'm %s, age %d, working with %s",
$NAME, $AGE, join(", ", @PEERS);
}
sub happy_birthday {
my $self = attr shift;
return ++$AGE;
}
The need for the use vars declaration is because what
Alias does is play with package globals with the same name
as the fields. To use globals while use strict is in
effect, you have to predeclare them. These package
variables are localized to the block enclosing the attr()
call just as if you'd used a local() on them. However,
that means that they're still considered global variables
with temporary values, just as with any other local().
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It would be nice to combine Alias with something like
Class::Struct or Class::MethodMaker.
NOTES
Object Terminology
In the various OO literature, it seems that a lot of
different words are used to describe only a few different
concepts. If you're not already an object programmer,
then you don't need to worry about all these fancy words.
But if you are, then you might like to know how to get at
the same concepts in Perl.
For example, it's common to call an object an instance of
a class and to call those objects' methods instance
methods. Data fields peculiar to each object are often
called instance data or object attributes, and data fields
common to all members of that class are class data, class
attributes, or static data members.
Also, base class, generic class, and superclass all
describe the same notion, whereas derived class, specific
class, and subclass describe the other related one.
C++ programmers have static methods and virtual methods,
but Perl only has class methods and object methods.
Actually, Perl only has methods. Whether a method gets
used as a class or object method is by usage only. You
could accidentally call a class method (one expecting a
string argument) on an object (one expecting a reference),
or vice versa.
From the C++ perspective, all methods in Perl are virtual.
This, by the way, is why they are never checked for
function prototypes in the argument list as regular
builtin and user-defined functions can be.
Because a class is itself something of an object, Perl's
classes can be taken as describing both a "class as meta-
object" (also called object factory) philosophy and the
"class as type definition" (declaring behaviour, not
defining mechanism) idea. C++ supports the latter notion,
but not the former.
SEE ALSO
The following manpages will doubtless provide more
background for this one: the perlmod manpage, the perlref
manpage, the perlobj manpage, the perlbot manpage, the
perltie manpage, and the overload manpage.
AUTHOR AND COPYRIGHT
Copyright (c) 1997, 1998 Tom Christiansen All rights
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reserved.
When included as part of the Standard Version of Perl, or
as part of its complete documentation whether printed or
otherwise, this work may be distributed only under the
terms of Perl's Artistic License. Any distribution of
this file or derivatives thereof outside of that package
require that special arrangements be made with copyright
holder.
Irrespective of its distribution, all code examples in
this file are hereby placed into the public domain. You
are permitted and encouraged to use this code in your own
programs for fun or for profit as you see fit. A simple
comment in the code giving credit would be courteous but
is not required.
COPYRIGHT
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Larry Wall, Roderick Schertler, Gurusamy
Sarathy, Dean Roehrich, Raphael Manfredi, Brent Halsey,
Greg Bacon, Brad Appleton, and many others for their
helpful comments.
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